Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Question 1:
Trace the characteristic features of Chola kingship on the basis of inscriptions.

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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Answer 1:

Sources: Inscriptions to be mentioned in the answer
a. Prashastis - Tiruvalangad Copper Plates, Larger Leiden Plates and the Anbil Plates, Kanya Kumari Inscription of Vira Rajendra etc
b. Numerous Land Grant Inscriptions - first section called Meykirtis
c. Temple inscriptions - Uttaramerur, Tanjavur
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There are generally three typical aspects about the Chola state. You should use them to construct the answer.
a. Nature of Chola state - centralized, segmentary, feudal, early state
b. Structure of Chola administration from top to bottom
c. Local self government under Cholas
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Generic type Intro
Imperial Cholas rose to eminence in the 9th c CE when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from Pallavas and greatly spread during the era of Rajaraja and Rajendra who succeeded in creating a huge empire spanning entire South India and influencing even SE Asia.

Historiographical Intro
Nature of kingship in imperial Chola has been subjected to the great controversy due to the differing paradigms suggested by scholars like Nilkanth Shastri, Burten Stein, Karashima and Subbarayulu.
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Additional Pointers
a. Legitimization - Sangam era legacy - names of earlier kings

b. Dominance of Sanskritic and Brahmanic traditions
i. Itihasa-Puranic tradition - Suryavamshi origin (Mythical origin in genealogies)
ii. Kshatriya origin - Varman suffix to various Chola kings
iii. Dharmopadeshaka - another title
iv. Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremonies

c. Achievements publicized
i. Mention of wars and military exploits of kings
ii. Various land grants

d. Example - Rajaraja Chola brought various feudatories under control, landed magnates incorporated into state system
i. Kshatriyashikhamani title to Rajaraja
ii. Gifts to meritorious Brahmins - to create support base.
iii. Title such as Ulakananda Perumal (Trivikrama who measured Earth) to Rajaraja

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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Answer 2
Introduction 1:
Notwithstanding the patriarchal nature of society, the political history of early medieval India gives several instances of queens succeeding to the throne.

Introduction 2:
The political domain remained essentially masculine, but women worked in different capacities which marked a specific feature of gender relation in the early medieval period.

Introduction 3:
The Brahmanical literature in the Early Medieval favoured males and denied women public roles of authority. Other texts like Rajtarangini however not only highlight the women sovereign rulers but also of women’s agency behind the throne.
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Kashmir Examples:
Three female rulers of Kashmir (Yashovati, Sugandha and Didda of Gonda, Utpala and Yashakara dynasties respectively)

Odisha Examples: (Bhauma-Kara dynasty)
Prithivimahadevi ascended the throne at the behest of feudatories. Dandimahadevi, Dharmamahadevi, and Valkulamahadevi were other Bhauma-Kara queens.

Deccan and South Indian Examples:
🔸Eastern Chalukyas, Vijayamahadevi became ruler after the death of her husband. She is known to have issued a land grant to Brahmanas.

🔸A Kadamba queen named Divabbarasi is known to have ruled till her minor son attained majority. She too made land grants.

🔸Rudramadevi was a 13th-century Kakatiya queen of Andhra who succeeded to the throne on being nominated by her father.
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Other Political Roles:
🔸Besides the rulers, a large number of women also participated actively in court politics in different capacities as queen, princesses, low caste wives, concubines and servant girls.
🔸Besides these royal women, courtesans, temple dancers, wives, mothers and widows were also depicted as playing important roles in court politics.
🔸Besides politics, some royal and non-royal women were also shown patronizing religious buildings and other activities.
🔸Besides being rulers, some of the royal women were appointed as governors, administrators, village chieftain, counselor etc.
🔸Cross-cousin marriages and matrimonial alliances among royal families also allowed women to use their maternal connections politically and socially even after marriage.
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Conclusion 1:
Women’s participation in power politics did not remain uniform in the early medieval times. Various instances indicate that although political power in early medieval India was generally wielded by men, it could devolve on women in certain circumstances.

Conclusion 2:
However, the nature of society and state remained patriarchal in nature. The power these royal women exercised essentially remained subject to patriarchal norms.


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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Pointers for Answer 3
Part I
Introduce 12 Alwar, 63 Nayanar saints
Fused element of love and devotion reflected in sangam with bhakti based on Puranas in north India

Part II - Significance
🔺Organized popular movement - not only religious equality but also social equality
🔺Tamil language and literature
🔺Temples
🔺Revitalized North
🔺Strengthening Brahmanism (Vaishnava Acharya)
🔺Strengthening monarchy (eg Cholas)

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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Pointers for Answer 4
Comment - In this answer, do not focus much on the content of Rajtarangini. What it tells about Kashmir is less relevant. What is more important is the approach of Kalhana to history writing. Assessment of his idea of history and also the sources he assessed and utilized, the way he provided information, all these are more relevant to this answer.
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Rajatarangini Basic Facts
Chronicle of Kashmir region, written in Sanskrit
Consists of eight books/tarangas composed in verse
First three tarangas deal with the history of the region till the 7th century CE
Tarangas 4 to 6 carry the story forward till the 11th century
Last two tarangas (which are also the longest) deal with the 12th century
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Rajtarangini = Only one History book from ancient India?
• Since the time of William Jones, it has been repeatedly said that there was only one text from early India that could be regarded as historical writing: the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhan in 1148. Kalhan describes it as a kavya.
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Kalhana is aware of representing the past “as it was”, as itihasa.
• Unlike many other chronicles, Kalhana takes care to mention the sources that he has consulted. The work shows a familiarity not only with the Epics and Puranas, but with more historically-oriented writing, such as the historical biographies written by Bana, by Bilhana, an important local Purana (Nilamata Purana), and Ksemendra’s Nrpavali. Various local inscriptions, coin legends were consulted, and oral tradition preserved in popular legends were also utilized.

• Kalhana was familiar with court circles (his father Champaka was the minister in the court of the earlier king), even if not serving at the court himself. This distancing probably enabled him to make independent judgements on various rulers. Kalhana was not writing to pamper any particular patron.

• He is also concerned with understanding the inexplicable behaviour of kings just prior to the current dynasty. Hence, his criticism of the actions of kings who were his close contemporaries. His narrative is peppered with severe judgements on various groups who exploited Kashmir.

• The text narrates the history of Kashmir and incorporates into the narration legends, chronology based on written records, and details of events closer to the author’s time which are more authentic. He claims that he is correcting the chronology of his predecessors and giving a connected account of the past by partly filling in gaps and removing fictitious genealogies.
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Mention of Diwali in Al Beruni's Kitab up Hind.

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