Factors which paved the way for the rise of feudalism in India:

1. The concept of Dharma Vijaya, which was first mentioned in Arthashastra. In other words, Shakas, Kushanas, Guptas avoided complete annexation of defeated Kings, rather, they were allowed to rule as subordinated. This definitely created a hierarchy.

2. External invasions led to political fragmentations, viz. Hun invasions and Turkish invasions.

3. Land grants.

4. Decline in trade & commerce and money economy at least in some parts of the Indian subcontinent.


Features of Indian feudalism:

1. Political fragmentation and increased number of subordinate kings.

2. Rise of intermediaries between King and cultivators.

3. Emergence of overlord and subordinate peasantry. Overlords claimed a large part of the agrarian surplus on account of their supposed ownership of land and peasant-cultivator obliged to such exploitation on account of his loyalty to tradition and customs.

4. Landlordism was associated even with temples and monasteries.

5. In at least some of the land grants, peasants and craftsmen were tied with the land. So, they were transferred to the donees along with land. This resulted into feudalisation of agriculture and crafts, also known as Jajmani system.

6. Some of the big feudal lords started to give a part of their grant to subordinate chiefs. Thus, started the subinfeudation (hierarchy of lords).

7. Some of the grantees had military obligation to meet.

8. Feudal consciousness had been expressed in contemporary art and religion also.

Differences between European and Indian Feudalism:

1. Serfdom and manorial system were absent in India.

2. In the European context, feudalism was a phase which emerged out of the slave based economic production model i.e. a slave based economy to a serf based economy. In India, slaves existed but they were mainly deployed within household. Slave based production system was absent in India.

#feudalism #earlymedieval

From tomorrow, I will start posting questions in the morning and answer pointers after some time. Lets start our activity with the focus on questions and answers.

I will begin with Early Medieval India (ie after Post-Gupta era) and first try to cover Medieval India and then onwards. We will go point by point as per the syllabus.

Suggestion:
Try to write answers by your own. Don't just collect the data. It seldom helps.

While writing, try to exhibit conceptual clarity, mentioning proper sources, historiographical understanding, all of it with lucid writing within word limit.

PS:
▪️Apart from questions, i will also post various write-ups, news articles, topical summaries, expert views, historians opinions here to enrich your preparation.

▪️I am also planning to start mapping practice soon. Mapping is a compulsory and a very important part of Paper 1. And it is really a low-hanging fruit which students often neglect.

#announcement
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Question 1:
Trace the characteristic features of Chola kingship on the basis of inscriptions.

#Earlymedieval #Chola #Polity #inscription #AnswerWritingPractice

@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Answer 1:

Sources: Inscriptions to be mentioned in the answer
a. Prashastis - Tiruvalangad Copper Plates, Larger Leiden Plates and the Anbil Plates, Kanya Kumari Inscription of Vira Rajendra etc
b. Numerous Land Grant Inscriptions - first section called Meykirtis
c. Temple inscriptions - Uttaramerur, Tanjavur
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There are generally three typical aspects about the Chola state. You should use them to construct the answer.
a. Nature of Chola state - centralized, segmentary, feudal, early state
b. Structure of Chola administration from top to bottom
c. Local self government under Cholas
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Generic type Intro
Imperial Cholas rose to eminence in the 9th c CE when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from Pallavas and greatly spread during the era of Rajaraja and Rajendra who succeeded in creating a huge empire spanning entire South India and influencing even SE Asia.

Historiographical Intro
Nature of kingship in imperial Chola has been subjected to the great controversy due to the differing paradigms suggested by scholars like Nilkanth Shastri, Burten Stein, Karashima and Subbarayulu.
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Additional Pointers
a. Legitimization - Sangam era legacy - names of earlier kings

b. Dominance of Sanskritic and Brahmanic traditions
i. Itihasa-Puranic tradition - Suryavamshi origin (Mythical origin in genealogies)
ii. Kshatriya origin - Varman suffix to various Chola kings
iii. Dharmopadeshaka - another title
iv. Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremonies

c. Achievements publicized
i. Mention of wars and military exploits of kings
ii. Various land grants

d. Example - Rajaraja Chola brought various feudatories under control, landed magnates incorporated into state system
i. Kshatriyashikhamani title to Rajaraja
ii. Gifts to meritorious Brahmins - to create support base.
iii. Title such as Ulakananda Perumal (Trivikrama who measured Earth) to Rajaraja

#Earlymedieval #Chola #Polity #inscription #AnswerWritingPractice

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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Question 2:
Discuss the role of women in politics in the Early Medieval era.

#Earlymedieval #women #gender #social #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Answer 2
Introduction 1:
Notwithstanding the patriarchal nature of society, the political history of early medieval India gives several instances of queens succeeding to the throne.

Introduction 2:
The political domain remained essentially masculine, but women worked in different capacities which marked a specific feature of gender relation in the early medieval period.

Introduction 3:
The Brahmanical literature in the Early Medieval favoured males and denied women public roles of authority. Other texts like Rajtarangini however not only highlight the women sovereign rulers but also of women’s agency behind the throne.
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Kashmir Examples:
Three female rulers of Kashmir (Yashovati, Sugandha and Didda of Gonda, Utpala and Yashakara dynasties respectively)

Odisha Examples: (Bhauma-Kara dynasty)
Prithivimahadevi ascended the throne at the behest of feudatories. Dandimahadevi, Dharmamahadevi, and Valkulamahadevi were other Bhauma-Kara queens.

Deccan and South Indian Examples:
🔸Eastern Chalukyas, Vijayamahadevi became ruler after the death of her husband. She is known to have issued a land grant to Brahmanas.

🔸A Kadamba queen named Divabbarasi is known to have ruled till her minor son attained majority. She too made land grants.

🔸Rudramadevi was a 13th-century Kakatiya queen of Andhra who succeeded to the throne on being nominated by her father.
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Other Political Roles:
🔸Besides the rulers, a large number of women also participated actively in court politics in different capacities as queen, princesses, low caste wives, concubines and servant girls.
🔸Besides these royal women, courtesans, temple dancers, wives, mothers and widows were also depicted as playing important roles in court politics.
🔸Besides politics, some royal and non-royal women were also shown patronizing religious buildings and other activities.
🔸Besides being rulers, some of the royal women were appointed as governors, administrators, village chieftain, counselor etc.
🔸Cross-cousin marriages and matrimonial alliances among royal families also allowed women to use their maternal connections politically and socially even after marriage.
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Conclusion 1:
Women’s participation in power politics did not remain uniform in the early medieval times. Various instances indicate that although political power in early medieval India was generally wielded by men, it could devolve on women in certain circumstances.

Conclusion 2:
However, the nature of society and state remained patriarchal in nature. The power these royal women exercised essentially remained subject to patriarchal norms.


#EarlyMedieval #Women #Gender #Social #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

Question 3:
Throw light on the Bhakti of Alvar and Nayanar saints while underlining the significance of Bhakti movement in the history of South India. (250 words, 15 marks)

#Earlymedieval #bhakti #religion #south #dravida #tamil #AnswerWritingPractice

@nikhilhistoryoptional

#worldhistory #africa #decolonisation #commonwealth
@nikhilhistoryculture

This is Akbar season this time. Three new books have been published in last few months exclusively on Akbar. All three books bring out different facets of Akbar's era.

High chances of some question related to Akbar this year in the exam.

#mughal #akbar #bookreview
@nikhilhistoryculture

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Pointers for Answer 3
Part I
Introduce 12 Alwar, 63 Nayanar saints
Fused element of love and devotion reflected in sangam with bhakti based on Puranas in north India

Part II - Significance
🔺Organized popular movement - not only religious equality but also social equality
🔺Tamil language and literature
🔺Temples
🔺Revitalized North
🔺Strengthening Brahmanism (Vaishnava Acharya)
🔺Strengthening monarchy (eg Cholas)

#EarlyMedieval #bhakti #religion #south #dravida #tamil #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Question 4
Evaluate Rajtarangini as a source of history. [2012, 10m]

#EarlyMedieval #Literature #Kashmir #Historiography #Sources #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kE1XxK_Ddl0

#buddhism
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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 14. Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Pointers for Answer 4
Comment - In this answer, do not focus much on the content of Rajtarangini. What it tells about Kashmir is less relevant. What is more important is the approach of Kalhana to history writing. Assessment of his idea of history and also the sources he assessed and utilized, the way he provided information, all these are more relevant to this answer.
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Rajatarangini Basic Facts
Chronicle of Kashmir region, written in Sanskrit
Consists of eight books/tarangas composed in verse
First three tarangas deal with the history of the region till the 7th century CE
Tarangas 4 to 6 carry the story forward till the 11th century
Last two tarangas (which are also the longest) deal with the 12th century
———————————————
Rajtarangini = Only one History book from ancient India?
• Since the time of William Jones, it has been repeatedly said that there was only one text from early India that could be regarded as historical writing: the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhan in 1148. Kalhan describes it as a kavya.
———————————————
Kalhana is aware of representing the past “as it was”, as itihasa.
• Unlike many other chronicles, Kalhana takes care to mention the sources that he has consulted. The work shows a familiarity not only with the Epics and Puranas, but with more historically-oriented writing, such as the historical biographies written by Bana, by Bilhana, an important local Purana (Nilamata Purana), and Ksemendra’s Nrpavali. Various local inscriptions, coin legends were consulted, and oral tradition preserved in popular legends were also utilized.

• Kalhana was familiar with court circles (his father Champaka was the minister in the court of the earlier king), even if not serving at the court himself. This distancing probably enabled him to make independent judgements on various rulers. Kalhana was not writing to pamper any particular patron.

• He is also concerned with understanding the inexplicable behaviour of kings just prior to the current dynasty. Hence, his criticism of the actions of kings who were his close contemporaries. His narrative is peppered with severe judgements on various groups who exploited Kashmir.

• The text narrates the history of Kashmir and incorporates into the narration legends, chronology based on written records, and details of events closer to the author’s time which are more authentic. He claims that he is correcting the chronology of his predecessors and giving a connected account of the past by partly filling in gaps and removing fictitious genealogies.
———————————————
#EarlyMedieval #Literature #Kashmir #Historiography #Sources #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 15. The Thirteenth Century:

Question 5
Assess the causes of the defeat of Northern Indian States against the Turkish invasion. [20 Marks]

#Medieval #TurkishInvasion #Ghori #Ghazni #Rajput #AnswerWritingPractice
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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 15. The Thirteenth Century:

Answer 5

Some absurd/outdated/illogical points: (Don’t use them in the answer)

1. Invaders came from cold mountainous ranges and were hardy people while Indians living in semi-tropical sweltering climate and in the plains were no match for them.
2. Invaders ate non-veg, had more proteins and thus were powerful while Indians were largely vegetarian and thus weaker.
3. Rajputs were follower of Dharmic code of warfare, and used to think of war as chivalrous sport.
4. Indians were pacifist with not much training in military while the invaders were war-like.
——————————————

Historiography of the causes
(Points to be used in the answer)

1. Jadunath Sarkar – Turkish people had zeal of new converts which gave them Ghazi spirit in the name of Allah. They had a sense of Islamic brotherhood, and they didn’t drink alcohol. All of this provided strong bond of unity and sense of mission.

2. Muhammad Habib – Hindus were backward, caste-ridden, internally divided, and socially fragmented. It all impaired their military effectiveness. (caste division in 10-11th c – cite Al Beruni). Hindus were insular from the developments in the world at that time.

3. Tactical reasons
a. Turkish military tactics and technology were superior. Eg. Iron-stirrup, crossbow, good breed of horses
b. Greater emphasis on mobility on part of Turks

4. Lack of strategic perspective of Rajputs
a. Not thinking of scientific border of India at Kabul-Kandahar but limiting to Ganga valley or Punjab plains
b. Internal disunity against the foreign invader. No all India common front formed.

5. Satish Chandra – Socio-political system of Rajputs was not upto the mark. Rajputs didn’t lack number or training or weapons or intent but they lacked proper organization and leadership. Feudal irregular and poorly organized levies of Rajputs were no match for centralized and iqta based loyal military organization of Sultans. Also, there was better scope for upward social mobility for talent and merit in Turks (eg slave generals).
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PS
You can add many more scholars like Peter Jackson and Andre Wink. Their viewpoints are really interesting. However, you have to be cautious about the word limit as well. Therefore, try to learn the skill of answer writing. If you are preparing for 2023, write one or two answers everyday till December/January. It helps immensely.

#Medieval #TurkishInvasion #Ghori #Ghazni #Rajput #AnswerWritingPractice
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Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 15. The Thirteenth Century:

Question 6
If Iltutmish was the first organizer of the Delhi Sultanate, Balban was its real consolidator. Comment. [15 marks]

#Medieval #Delhisultanate #AnswerWritingPractice
@nikhilhistoryoptional

This is a very interesting outlook. I personally think that Ancient is easier and more interesting because it's more theoretical in nature (we don't have enough data anyway). If you have a good grasp over the sources and a general idea of various historiographical debates, you can almost tackle anything in this section. Even if you lack some idea of the specific issue, you can still create a good answer on the spot.

On the contrary, in Modern and World, we get relatively less opportunity of go into historiographical issues (at least for Civil Services Exam) and thus we have to know a lot of issue-specific arguments in order to be able to write a good answer. As this era is closer to us, we have more data, it makes things tangible, more relevant, definitely, but it also makes the subject vast.

Anyway. For the students writing the exam in 2022 and in need of any guidance, assistance (like evaluation of answers or need of additional material or discussing strategy), you are all most welcome to meet me. I will be in the office everyday from 12 to 2 for such discussions. You can also drop me a personal message at @nikhil4history

#announcement
@nikhilhistoryoptional

Answer Writing Practice
Paper I: 16. The Fourteenth Century:

Question 7
Briefly discuss the impact of Mongol Invasions on Delhi Sultanate. [10 marks]

According to scholars like KA Nizami as well as Pater Hardy, Mongol invasion left a deep impact on polity of Delhi sultanate with larger consequences for society, economy and culture too.

▪️Initial sultans remained occupied with the Mongol question and couldn't undertake agressive imperial policy. Eg, Balban never left Delhi except for Bengal expedition.

▪️ Weak Centralisation: To consolidate the power, initial Delhi sultans didn't take any controlling measures against Muqtis, who started to enjoy wider provincial autonomy.

▪️Need for a strong standing army required huge resources. Thus, Alauddin Khilji took steps for land revenue reforms. (Increased land revenue to 50%, developed direct relation between the state and the peasantry). He also introduced the market control policy so that salary bill of the army comes down with the cheaper supply of essential commodities to soldiers.

▪️Cultural impact: A havoc caused by the Mongol invasions in Islamic world led to flocking of scholars, Sufi saints and adventurous people towards Delhi for a safe haven. Thus, Delhi emerged as a nerve center for Islamic cultural world.


#Medieval #Delhisultanate #AnswerWritingPractice #Mongol
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